A UNIQUE SURVIVOR
by
Richardson L. Spofford:
Delivered to The Chicago Literary Club
December 4, 1989
1 BACKGROUND
Every country with a written history has a few dates in the distant
past, known to all educated persons. They are benchmarks; one is aware
that an important event took place even if ignorant of
the details. In this country we recognize the years of 1492, 1620 and
1775. In England it has been said that every schoolboy knows what happened
in 1066. All of us are generally aware of the Norman Conquest, but an
historical background will be useful.
By the 11th century western Europe was becoming more prosperous and
politically organized. Towns were growing, universities begun, impressive
cathedrals were beginning to
replace small structures, literature was developing and the barbarian
invasions were coming to an end.
No country had the political boundaries or unified rule of modern
times, but the Saxon kings of England were generally recognized as at least
nominal rulers of the entire country, unlike France, where the royal
authority extended over only a small part of the modern country. True
political unity was lacking, though, and the kings depended on support of
the regional magnates, chiefly the great earls of Northumbria, Mercia and
Wessex. The relationship of King Edward with his powerful earls is one of
the two most important developments leading to the events of the conquest.
The other one is the complex relationship that existed among England,
Normandy and the Scandinavian countries.. Vikings had settled on both sides
of the channel during the 9th century, thus intensifying a long
relationship between England and Normandy. About the year 1000, the Danes
had established bases in Normandy to invade England again; subsequently
Cnut of Denmark gained the English throne.
By the 1030's Duke Robert of Normandy, father of William, became
alarmed at the increasing influence of Cnut in the Scandinavian world.
Since Edward and his brother, members of the Wessex Saxon dynasty which had
been replaced by Cnut, were then refugees in Normandy, the Normans were
inevitably drawn further into English affairs. Both Cnut and Robert died in
1035, and as there were problems with the succession in both countries, the
Normans were unable to intervene in England then. Cnut was followed by two
short-lived successors, the second of whom died in 1042. At that point, the
Saxon earls and other leaders invited Edward to return and he was
immediately acknowledged as king.
2 HAROLD, WILLIAM AND EDWARD
While Edward, known as the Confessor on account of his personal piety
and upright character, was generally acceptable, he owed his position
largely to descent in the West Saxon dynasty which was led by Godwin, most
powerful of the earls. Godwin, with his sons and supporters, controlled
much of England and was himself to become implicated in the death of
Edward's brother . Godwin may be seen as a nationalist, anti-foreign leader
and indeed showed his strength by forcing Edward to marry his daughter.
Perhaps it was to be expected that Edward, needing his own political
party, would turn for support to Normandy, where he had received
hospitality during his exile. Soon Norman clerks began to appear in
official positions, property was awarded to Norman leaders, one of whom
received enough land to establish a Norman colony. Norman bishops appeared,
particularly a Norman archbishop at Canterbury. Edward's mother herself was
a Norman, married to his predecessor King Ethelred; this had even earlier
introduced a Norman faction.
By the year 1051 there was open conflict over various issues. The king
prevailed and banished Godwin and his sons. Further, he repudiated his
wife, Godwin's daughter. Shortly thereafter Duke William of Normandy
visited England and was received by King Edward. Norman writers claimed
that Edward had promised the English throne to William at that time, though
no confirmatory evidence exists. It is possible that if subsequent events
had not happened, there might have been a peaceful political union of the
two countries.
By 1052 Godwin and his sons had raised enough support abroad to
re-establish themselves in England. By 1053 they forced out most of the
influential Normans, including the archbishop of Canterbury and Edward had
to take back his wife. Stigand, a Saxon and supporter of Godwin became the
new archbishop. On the ecclesiastical side, this move had repercussions
down to the Conquest.
Archbishop Robert had not been officially removed by the church
authorities and this action not only challenged the church reform movement
but the authority of the pope himself. Stigand himself was excommunicated
by five successive popes and many English prelates were uncomfortable with
him. He did, however, keep the insignia of rank, the revenues and court
influence. In 1053 Godwin died, succeeded by his son Harold as Earl of
Wessex and most powerful man in England next to the king, .
From this time to the Conquest England also faced the threat of
invasion by King Harold Hardrada of Norway. His claim to the throne derived
from his predecessor Magnus who had had an agreement with the last of the
Danish kings
We must briefly mention contemporary developments in Normandy. William
had proved himself as an administrator and fighter. He headed a strong
feudal state, in which he had advice and support from his subordinates,
rather than an elaborate administrative mechanism. Also supported by the
church, he was the leader of secular and ecclesiastical forces. By the
middle 1060s he had put down all domestic challenges, subdued the
neighboring dukedoms of Maine and Anjou, and beat back a threat from the
French monarchy. The king himself was a minor at the time with little
influence. William had solid support at home and little to fear from
neighbors.
We now arrive at the year 1064. The rivalry between England and
Normandy was approaching a climax, and with that, determination of the
future of English society, the position of England in relation to Western
Europe and the structure of Christianity in Britain.
3 DESCRIPTION OF Tapestry
The Bayeux Tapestry, as it is commonly known, is an embroidered
pictorial narrative needlework depicting Harold's trip to Normandy in 1064
and his adventures there, his return to England, the death of Edward the
Confessor, Harold's coronation, the Norman invasion and the battle of
Hastings. It is approximately 231 feet long by slightly more than 20 inches
including the borders. The field is something over 13 inches wide, with the
borders occupying the remainder. Eight colors of wool are applied to a
background of bleached linen which has darkened somewhat with age. The
background consists of eight pieces of varying length sewn together in one
strip.
Technically it is not a tapestry at all. A tapestry is woven,
warp and weft, entirely on a loom, but the term has been applied to many
kinds of decorative textiles. This one is the sole remaining example of
numerous narrative hangings that existed in the middle ages and in fact is
the only significant survivor of many decorative textiles of the age. The
few others known are small works or remnants of larger ones. It is also the
only extant large-scale picture of warfare from the middle ages.
A brief summary of its known history may be of interest. The earliest
known reference is contained in the inventory taken in 1476 of the
possessions of the cathedral in Bayeux. When and how it got there has been
the subject of much speculation but there are no hard facts.
Although the narrative content presents generally a Norman version of
history, it is now accepted that the tapestry is English work. Fine
needlework was valued everywhere and English embroidery of late Saxon times
was highly regarded. Names and other words, when not in Latin, are spelt
in the English form. Many of the design features have counterparts in
English illustrated manuscripts, such as the foliage of trees, figureheads
on the prows of ships and the style of drawing faces.
There is less agreement on when it was made, but the evidence suggests
a date within a few years after the Conquest, possibly in the county of
Kent. Bishop Odo of Bayeux, half-brother to William, was an active
participant in the invasion, as we shall see later, and he became Earl of
Kent in 1067. Since he had been busy raising money for his new cathedral
and overseeing its construction, it has commonly been accepted that he
commissioned the tapestry to glorify William, justify the Norman version of
events and decorate his new cathedral at its dedication in 1077. In 1082 he
was stripped of his power and position by William, so if he was involved,
it must have been no later than that year.
Whoever designed the tapestry was familiar with the events depicted
and knew what horses, ships, armor and weapons of the time looked like. He
also must have had access to illustrated manuscripts and other decorative
objects of the period; certainly these were to be found at Canterbury in
Kent. Additional evidence of near-contemporary manufacture is to be seen
in the presence of some minor characters who, having no historical
importance whatever, yet must have played some parts which were known to
their contemporaries. Three Norman knights are shown and named; two of
these later held land of St. Augustine's abbey in Kent. There is also the
woman named Aelfgyva, shown with a priest in the main field of the tapestry
adjoining a naked man in the lower border. We do not know how this relates
to the main story but since both men are making similar hand gestures,
there may have been some local scandal which would have been forgotten by a
later age. The clothing styles shown also suggest a nearly-contemporary
dating. About the time of William's death in 1087, styles changed and it
is unlikely that a designer much later would have been careful about such a
detail.
It is less certain that the Tapestry was made for the Bayeux
Cathedral. Wall hangings were prized in the manor houses and castles of the
nobility, and some of them must have had a room large enough to display it.
The Bayeux cathedral suffered very serious fires in 1106 and again in 1159.
The occupants, of course, would have saved whatever they could, but one
would expect that communion plate, other objects of precious metal,
vestments and other religious objects would have been valued more than a
secular decoration.
The Tapestry does not appear to have been designed for a cathedral
space, as it would have extended along both sides of the nave and across
the chancel arch, an awkward arrangement. On the other hand, Bishop Odo
could have intended it for edification of the illiterate faithful and in
later centuries it was only displayed a few days each year in the
cathedral. Writing about 1162, the Norman Wace mentioned it but apparently
had not seen it. As he was a canon of the cathedral, it is unlikely that
the Tapestry was there at that time.
Another pleasant theory has been that it was made by, or for, Queen
Matilda, wife of William. She died in 1083 but it is not mentioned in her
will or any other contemporary document Nevertheless, in the town of Bayeux
the signs directing visitors to the building housing the Tapestry refer to
the Tapestry of Queen Matilda.
What does appear probable is that each separate piece was stretched on
a frame, to allow the workers the use of two hands, that the design was
first drawn on the linen foundation and that it would have required nearly
two years' of working time. It is thought that more than one person worked
on it at the same time. We can be reasonably sure that it was made within a
decade or two after the Conquest but we can only speculate about its
initial destination.
No written record of the Tapestry has been found from 1476 to the year
1724, when a French antiquarian named Lancelot found a copy of some of the
scenes among the papers of a deceased official in Normandy. Recognizing the
antiquity of the scenes shown in the sketches, he communicated his find to
the French Academy. At this point it was not known exactly what was being
depicted - a sculpture, manuscript, textile or something else.
By 1729 the historian Dom Bernard de Montfaucon had discovered its
nature and location and soon thereafter Lancelot found the cathedral
inventory of 1476. There follows a brief chronology of other dates in the
history of the Tapestry.
In 1562 Calvinist troops sacked the town, but the Tapestry was hidden
and later returned to the cathedral.
In 1792, during the revolution, a local official found it being used
as a cover for a wagon of the local volunteers, and rescued it just in time.
In 1794 it was saved from being cut up for use as decorations in a
town parade. By then it was noted as a national treasure deserving special
protection.
In 1803 Napoleon, as First Consul, ordered it sent to Paris for
exhibition. Presumably he hoped it would help arouse support for an
invasion of England. Later it was sent back to Bayeux, but as municipal
property and the town authorities refused to return it to the cathedral.
In 1819 the English antiquarian Stothard copied it, after which it was
finally published in London.
In 1842 it was first safeguarded under glass.
In 1870 it was hidden away when a Prussian invasion threatened.
In 1939 it was again stored elsewhere for World War II, though
occasionally shown to German occupiers.
In 1945 it was finally returned to Bayeux.
At present it is housed under modern conditions in its own building,
where it may be seen at close-up by the public, together with an excellent
explanatory exhibit and a documentary movie in English.
The iconography is seen somewhat differently by various authorities.
Generally, there are 626 human figures, 200 horses and mules, 35 dogs, 500
other animals, 40 ships and boats, 33 buildings, 49 trees and 57 Latin
inscriptions describing the various scenes. The humans include only four
women, including one small border figure. Much information is shown on
contemporary architecture, clothing, weapons, armor, hair styles, horse
trappings and shipbuilding.
The story begins showing Harold conferring with King Edward, after
which he sets out for Normandy.. There is no firm evidence to show the
purpose of this mission or, indeed, if the king did actually send Harold to
Normandy. He did go, and the Norman writers, of course, held that
Edward, childless and sensing his impending death, was confirming to William
his intention to bequeath the English throne to William. From the English
viewpoint, there are two objections to this: that Edward had not the power
unilaterally to promise the throne, as that required approval by the earls
and other advisors at home, which would not have been granted, and that
Edward at that time was in good health.
Some authorities believe that Harold never intended to visit
Normandy.. He may have been on a hunting trip, intending to land elsewhere
on the English coast, or traveling for another purpose. There was frequent
communication between the two countries at that time.
Accompanied by retainers, dogs and his falcon, Harold leaves the
palace for the coast. Stopping at the church of Bosham to pray for a safe
journey, they enjoy a final meal and wade out to the ships to embark. Here
we see some of the homely details which make the Tapestry a great document:
a dog and the falcon are being carried at the water's edge by retainers who
have raised their garments waist-high to keep themselves dry. Sails full of
wind, they cross the Channel only to be blown off course and land in the
territory of Guy, Count of Ponthieu. In the robber-baron tradition of the
time, Guy and his retainers carry off Harold for ransom Even if he had
intended a visit to William, Harold would not have planned to land at a
considerable distance from William's base.
While they are negotiating in Guy's castle, the news reaches William.
Seated in his castle, William gives orders to his messengers who gallop off
to Guy, hair flying in the wind. Guy then sets Harold free and leads his
to a meeting with William, after which they proceed to William's castle.
Harold agrees to accompany William on an expedition against his enemy,
Conan of Brittany.
The expedition sets out, and with Mount Saint-Michel in the background
they ford the river and cross the treacherous quicksand. Men and horses
fall, and Harold is shown rescuing two soldiers. Successive scenes show
the attack on Dol, with Conan sliding down a rope to escape, the attack on
Rennes and the capture of Conan's fortification at Dinan. At Dinan the
action is especially vigorous. While William's men are setting fire to the
stockade, Conan is extending the keys of the town to William on the end of
his lance.
So far what we have seen in Normandy is accepted as fact. The next
scene shows William conferring arms on Harold or knighting him as a reward
for faithful service. This must be a Norman attempt to rewrite history, as
Harold was already an earl and William's equal. Harold could not have
become a vassal of William.
Proceeding to Bayeux, we see William seated in state with Harold,
standing before him between two altars or reliquaries, swearing fealty on
the holy relics supposedly contained within. Again, this must represent a
Norman viewpoint, where Harold acknowledges William's future position when
the English throne should be vacated. An oath taken upon holy relics was a
very serious matter in that age and Harold is made to look like he knew
what he was doing., although a writer a century later suggested he was not
aware of the hidden relics. It appears to have been done outdoors, in
accord with the old belief that thereby nothing would be concealed from
God's sight.
Possibly he did swear something - Normans said he did and the English
did not contradict this, though we may ask what later English writer would
have contradicted his new rulers? Perhaps Harold may only have agreed to
present William's case at court on his return. After this episode Harold
and his men (without the falcon and dogs) take ship, return to England and
Harold reports to King Edward.
Unlike his appearance at the beginning of the Tapestry, Edward does
not look very well. Indeed, the next scenes chronologically show him lying
on his deathbed, followed by priests and servants preparing the body. I
quote the dramatic woven captions:
"HIC EADWARDUS REX INIECTO ALLOQUIT FIDELES" and
"ET HIC DEFUNCTUS EST"
Death came on January 5, 1066. The body and casket are then borne to the
newly-consecrated Westminster Abbey by pallbearers, followed by clergy and
a procession. We note especially the hand of God pointing down from Heaven
toward the church.
The deathbed scene clearly shows Edward extending his hand to
Harold who is at his side, suggesting that Edward was recommending Harold
as his successor. The version of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle probably written
at St. Augustine's Abbey in Canterbury states as much and adds that Harold
was chosen by other leading men of the time. Norman writers were aware of
the death-bed nomination but gave precedence to William's claim.
Harold was crowned as King the next day, January 6. The Tapestry
shows nobles offering the crown to him and in the next scene, Harold in
majesty upon the throne, crowned and holding the scepter and orb of rank.
On one side are noblemen bearing a sword and on the other side stands
Archbishop Stigand, with onlookers in the next room. One of the nobles who
offers the crown to Harold points back to the deathbed scene, suggesting
agreement with Edward's recommendation. Some Norman writers later claimed
that Harold had seized the crown, but the Tapestry does not support this
view.
The Tapestry does not actually show Harold being crowned. The caption
above his seated figure reads "HIC RESIDET HAROLD REX ANGLORUM" The
earliest known Englishman to record any details of the ceremony, writing in
the early 12th century, states that Ealdred the archbishop of York
performed the ceremony. The Tapestry clearly shows Stigand the
excommunicated archbishop of Canterbury present but does not show him
performing the ceremony. Had he done so, Normans would have had grounds to
question the validity of the ceremony, and the archbishop of York would
would have had to be in London before Edward's death in order to perform
the ceremony.. Nowhere in the Tapestry is Harold called a usurper. On the
contrary he appears to have followed the correct procedures and his
well-wishers represent the main ranks of society - those who work, fight
and pray.
These dramatic scenes are about midway through the Tapestry. Trouble,
however, is coming soon
4 INVASION
The year 1066 was, coincidentally, one in which Halley's comet
appeared.. The next scenes show men watching the comet as it flies along in
the Tapestry's upper border, and Harold on his throne as an astrologer
explains . The viewer, of course, is to see this as an evil omen, as events
prove. Indeed, chroniclers elsewhere in Europe noted the comet and
associated it with the Conquest..
In the Tapestry, a ship crosses the Channel, men report the news to
William and he, gesturing imperiously, orders the invasion fleet to be
built. In detail we see men felling trees, using an adze to make planks
from the trunks, assembling the planks and other details of construction.
Then they drag the ships to the water and begin to outfit the expedition.
In reality, the campaign did not begin so soon. William's proposal to
invade England was rejected at first by his barons, but with promises of
money and land in England they supported him. William and Odo recruited
cavalry, foot soldiers, seamen and others from near and far, even from Italy
and Spain. Authorities estimate there were 5000 - 6000 cavalry and a total
force of 12,000 - 15,000 men. This took a long time, but time was needed
anyway to build the invasion fleet. It appears to have been completed about
the end of August or early September, but contrary winds delayed departure
until September 27.
Following construction, the Tapestry shows men, horses and equipment
being loaded aboard ship. There are men carrying suits of chain mail, wine
barrels and sacks of supplies. There is a cart loaded with lances and a
large wine-barrel being pulled to the water's edge. Men ride horses to the
ships, some of which are loaded with horses gazing over the gunwales much
as modern-day tourists look as their cruise ship is about to depart.
Colorful sails fill with wind as ships extend from one side of the Channel
to the other. On the English side, a ship's mast is unstepped and horses
guided ashore while other ships are lined up on the beach.
Having landed at Pevensey on the morning of September 28, they ride
to set up camp near Hastings. Foragers round up cattle, sheep and pigs. At
a field kitchen supervised by one of William's trusted men, meat is
roasting on a large spit, cooks are preparing food on a portable stove and
meat is served on skewers to the expedition leaders. William, Odo and
entourage are seated at a meal, complete with cup-bearer. Odo, as a
clergyman, has fish instead of meat.
Having eaten, men are set to work constructing a defensive
fortification. The caption identifies it as a castle, possibly because, as
a Norman import, it was a curiosity. Other troops set out to ravage the
neighborhood, one scene showing two soldiers setting fire to a house from
which a woman and child emerge.
5 THE BATTLE
At this point we must leave the Tapestry for more historical
background. While the invasion was in progress, where were Harold and the
English forces? Some had been disbanded earlier and the rest, including
Harold, were in distant Yorkshire.
Harold's brother Tostig, earl of Northumbria, had been driven out by
rebels in the preceding year, 1065. The rebels chose as their new leader a
brother of the Earl of Mercia, from the one family that could effectively
threaten Harold and the Wessex family. On King Edward's order, Harold went
to negotiate a settlement between the rebels and the court in London.
Harold sided with the rebels, thereby confirming Tostig as his enemy, and
Tostig fled to Norway.
In May, 1066 he returned with a small force which accomplished
nothing but the king of Scotland did provide sanctuary for an invasion with
the king of Norway and on Sept. 20 they defeated English forces at York.
Harold hastily collected troops, marched north and won the battle of
Stamford Bridge, near York, on Sept. 25. Both Tostig and the Norwegian king
were killed. Three days later the Normans landed far to the south and set
up their base at Hastings.
Harold apparently earlier had warning that an invasion was in
process, for ships and men had been waiting near the Isle of Wight, but as
short-term levies, their time for service had expired and they were
disbanded.
Returning to the Tapestry we see William, with the papal banner
affixed to his lance, preparing to mount his horse. The banner, like the
comet, is an important symbol for the Norman cause. We remember the
difficulty about the archbishop of Canterbury, but William had other
reasons to claim papal support. He had supported church reorganization and
doctrine and encouraged religious foundations at home. Pope Hildebrand
desired to extend his authority in England and could expect more support
from William than from a Saxon king.
The Norman cavalry now sets out to confront the English forces,
mounted on handsome steeds that stand, prance and gallop across a long
section of the Tapestry. As they advance, a Norman scout tells William that
the Saxon army is nearby and an English soldier runs to warn Harold of
William's near approach. Brandishing lances and shields and supported by
archers, the Norman cavalry attacks.
The English forces, afoot, are in close-order defensive array with
massed shields. Swords are wielded, lances thrust, horses rear and fall,
while those on both sides lie dead and wounded. Bishop Odo, armed with a
club in deference to his clerical status, shouts words of encouragement. To
quell the rumor that he was wounded, William raises his visor to rally his
troops. In the midst of the battle, Harold's two brothers die and, near the
end, Harold is killed. The final scene shows Norman cavalry pursuing
English survivors who are fleeing through the forest.
A brief historical background to the battle may be helpful. It was
fought on October 14, 1066 around low hills at Senlac, near Hastings. The
English were primarily footsoldiers with some archers. While they might
ride to battle, they fought on foot. Except for the small force of
housecarls belonging to the court, there was no professional or standing
army or navy. Volunteers or short-term levies were required for any major
effort and they were largely farmers and fishermen who had to make a
living. They were excellent footsoldiers, proficient with the battle-axe
and lance.
Feudalism had not yet reached England but in Normandy it was well
developed, so William could call on the loyalty and manpower of those under
him. His great tactical advantage lay in the cavalry, hitherto unknown in
England. He also had the advantage of superior numbers.
The English defensive position was established on a hill. Contrary to
what the Tapestry shows us, William also had a strong force of footmen,
largely recruited from Brittany. It was the Bretons who attacked first, and
they were readily thrown back by the defenders. His cavalry made a second
attack and this was likewise repulsed, but here the English made a serious
mistake. Many of them broke ranks and ran downhill to attack retreating
Normans. They, however, being mounted, rallied to cut down their pursuers
and greatly weakened the defense. Eventually William rallied all his forces
and attacking from all sides, killed Harold, broke through the English
center and the battle was over. Actually, some English survivors retreating
through the darkening forest turned back and tried unsuccessfully to seize
William.
Legend has it that Harold was killed by an arrow in his eye. This is
not entirely clear, viewing the Tapestry today, There has been some
restoration over the years, but Stothard's original drawing of 1819, prior
to that, suggests an arrow striking his head before being cut down by a
sword.
The Tapestry ends here. It is believed that originally there must have
been more, as it would have been logical to show William being crowned and
perhaps celebrating the victory. There is no vertical border at the end to
correspond with the one at the beginning and the end as it is now has been
patched to repair some previous damage. This probably occurred over many
years as it was unwound for display to visitors.
Harold lost through a combination of bad luck, undisciplined troops
and his own impetuosity. The same contrary winds that delayed William's
departure for more than two weeks enabled Tostig and the king of Norway to
invade the north, requiring Harold's quick campaign to Yorkshire. At the
same time, he had to let go the men and boats he had previously assembled
in the south against the invasion threat. Upon returning to oppose William,
he called for volunteers around the country. There were many from the
south, but none from Mercia or Northumbria, where he had lately become
unpopular with many people. Others in the north had no doubt had their fill
of fighting against Tostig and the Norwegians closer to home and wanted
none of another battle far away.
The return trip from Stamford Bridge to Hastings, more than 200 miles
between the Sept., 26 victory and the attack on Oct. 14, must have left
many men tired and lacking in supplies and organization. Had he delayed the
battle, he could have attracted more support and the same time put
William in a difficult position. William's forces occupied a small area
among a hostile population with the sea at their rear. It is likely their
food supplies were limited and certainly resupply across the channel for a
large force would have been difficult. William was unable, due to the
terrain, to use the full shock value of his cavalry. Had Harold been able
to arrive at the scene sooner and prevent William from seizing the
offensive, the result might have been different. It seems reasonable to say
that the Normans specialized in the art of war and the English did not.
6 THE BORDERS
About the borders alone of the Tapestry an entire book could be
written.. In classical and Renaissance art a frame served to separate the
subject from its surroundings. In the Tapestry the borders at times depict
scenes from contemporary life, at others they relate dynamically to the
main story in the central field. Many are of mythical animals and birds,
the origins of which lie in old Germanic legends and the Muslim East. Those
which relate to the main story emphasize the various themes - excitement,
trickery, aggression, sexuality.
We see men ploughing and seeding, in fact, one writer says this is the
earliest rendition of plowing with a horse. There are bear-baiting, a wild
beast attacking a large bird, the fable of the fox and the raven and a man
hunting with dogs. There is a strictly pornographic scene of a naked man
and woman.
When the battle itself begins, the lower border supplements the main
story.. It is filled with dead and dismembered casualties, shields,
weapons, riderless horses, archers and scavengers pulling the chain mail
from the dead owners. The whole indicates that the Tapestry was not just
meant to be seen as a story to be viewed rapidly or from a distance, but to
be seen carefully, as was an illustrated manuscript.
7 CONCLUSION
I conclude with a few general observations. The Tapestry almost
certainly was done with a point of view for a patron and not by a neutral
historian. It does support the claim of a foreign nobleman who has no
genealogical right. Generally the facts are correct and it does not
incorporate later myths or attempts to demean Harold. In fact, Harold
appears more often than William and never in a bad light. It was designed
by a capable artist working in an established tradition, probably in or
near Canterbury, a center for artists of narrative illustration.
It has been compared to Picasso's "Guernica" in that the designer knew
the realities of war. Another sees it as an illustration of a chanson de
geste - the medieval epic of adventure, heroism and feudal loyalty intended
for entertainment of lords and ladies after dinner. To us it is a
fascinating glimpse into the past, even with the unanswerable questions it
raises, and indeed is a unique survivor.
- - - - - - -
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Bernstein, David J. The Mystery of the Bayeux Tapestry, Chicago, 1987.
Birrell, F. F. L. Guide to the Bayeux Tapestry. London, 1931
Bowle, John England: A Portrait. New York, 1966.
Candee, Helen The Tapestry Book, New York, 1935
Douglas, David C. William the Conqueror Berkeley, 1964
Freeman, Edward The History of the Norman Conquest of England. Vol. III
Oxford, 1875.
Gibbs-Smith, C. H. The Bayeux Tapestry. London, 1974.
Green, J. R. A Short History of the English People. New York, 1893.
Maurois, Andre A History of England. New York, 1960.
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Parisse, Michel La Tapisserie de Bayeux. Denoel (pub) 1983.
Rice, D. Talbot English Art 871-1100. Oxford, 1952.
Stenton, Frank (ed), The Bayeux Tapestry. London, 1957.
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